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6B: Making Sense of the Environment

Attention, thinking, consciousness, memory and language: heuristics bending a judgment, a hypnogram across the night, a forgetting curve reset by review.

40 topics · 165 questions

Each topic is a path, not a menu: work down it in order and every question builds on the one above. Click any of them to watch the answer draw itself.

6B. Selective Attention and the Cocktail-Party Effect

  1. How it worksHow does a filter let one channel of sound through and reduce the rest to unprocessed noise?
  2. How it worksWalk me through a shadowing task where one ear is repeated aloud and the other is barely noticed.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't the unattended channel thrown away completely before any meaning is extracted?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to the filter when the unattended channel suddenly carries something personally important?
Your turneasy1 of 3
In a dichotic listening study a participant shadows the right ear while 68 words are played to the unattended left ear. On a later recognition test she identifies 9 of the unattended words and 49 of the 61 words that were shadowed. What percentage of the unattended words does she recognise?

6B. Divided Attention and Multitasking

  1. How it worksHow does a limited pool of attentional resources get split between two tasks at once?
  2. Worked exampleShow me performance on two tasks as one of them is practiced to the point of automaticity.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't multitasking actually doing two things at once for most task pairs?
  4. Going furtherWhat changes when the two tasks use different modalities instead of competing for the same one?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A driver holds 94 percent accuracy on a hazard-detection task when driving alone. Holding a hands-free phone conversation at the same time, accuracy falls to 68 percent. By what percentage of her single-task accuracy has performance fallen?

6B. Inattentional and Change Blindness

  1. How it worksHow does an attentional spotlight leave everything outside it effectively invisible?
  2. How it worksWalk me through a change blindness demo where a large object vanishes across a brief flicker.
  3. Going furtherWhat happens to detection when the change occurs in the exact spot you were told to watch?
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't seeing something the same as having a detailed picture of the whole scene in your head?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Of 224 observers asked to count basketball passes in a video, 99 fail to report the person in a gorilla suit who walks through the scene. What percentage of the observers miss the gorilla?

6B. The Information-Processing Model

  1. How it worksHow do input, encoding, storage, retrieval and output chain together in an information-processing model?
  2. Common mistakeWhy isn't human thinking a serial program running one instruction at a time?
  3. Going furtherWhat changes about the model once parallel and automatic processing are added to it?
Your turneasy1 of 3
An information-processing account divides a 571 ms choice reaction time into 119 ms of stimulus encoding, 243 ms of decision, and the rest as motor output. How many milliseconds does the motor stage take?

6B. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

  1. How it worksHow do assimilation and accommodation reshape a schema when new evidence does not fit?
  2. How it worksWalk me through sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational in order.
  3. Worked exampleShow me the conservation task where water poured into a tall thin glass suddenly looks like more.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't a preoperational child simply a small adult who has not learned enough facts yet?
  5. Going furtherWhat happens to Piaget's timeline when a task is made simpler and children pass it years early?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A longitudinal study follows one child who first passes conservation of number at age 7 and first solves a systematic hypothesis-testing problem at age 12. For how many years was this child in the concrete operational stage?

6B. Cognitive Changes in Late Adulthood

  1. How it worksHow do fluid and crystallized intelligence trace two opposite curves across the lifespan?
  2. Common mistakeWhy isn't general cognitive decline a normal and unavoidable feature of getting old?
  3. Going furtherWhat happens to those curves when the task is timed versus untimed?
Your turnmedium1 of 3
In a cross-sectional sample, scores on a timed reasoning test fall by 6 percent of the current value per decade after age 25. What percentage of the age-25 score remains at age 74?

6B. Culture, Heredity and Environment in Cognitive Development

  1. How it worksHow does the zone of proximal development mark the gap a more skilled partner can bridge?
  2. How it worksWalk me through scaffolding lifting a child through a task and then being withdrawn piece by piece.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't cognitive development the same sequence on the same schedule in every culture?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to measured development when enriched schooling is added to an impoverished environment?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A child solves 7 of 25 problems working alone and 16 of the same 25 problems with a more skilled partner alongside. How many of the problems lie in this child's zone of proximal development?

6B. Biological Factors That Affect Cognition

  1. How it worksHow do prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and association areas divide up the work of thinking?
  2. How it worksWalk me through myelination and synaptic pruning sharpening cognition across childhood.
  3. Going furtherWhat changes about executive function when the prefrontal cortex is still maturing at age nineteen?
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't a bigger brain a reliable predictor of better cognitive performance?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Cortical synapse density peaks at about 122 thousand per cubic millimetre in early childhood, and pruning removes 43 percent of those synapses by adulthood. What density, in thousands per cubic millimetre, remains in the adult?

6B. Algorithms, Heuristics and Trial and Error

  1. How it worksHow does an algorithm exhaustively search a space while a heuristic prunes most of it away?
  2. Worked exampleWalk me through unscrambling the letters SPLOYOCHYG by algorithm and then by a heuristic.
  3. How it worksShow me means-end analysis breaking one large gap into a chain of smaller subgoals.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't trial and error always the slowest way to reach an answer?
Your turnmedium1 of 3
A combination lock has 4 dials, each carrying 9 positions. In the worst case, how many combinations must an exhaustive algorithm try before it is guaranteed to open the lock?

6B. Fixation, Mental Set and Functional Fixedness

  1. How it worksHow does a mental set lock a solver into a procedure that stopped working two problems ago?
  2. Worked exampleShow me the candle problem solved once the tack box is seen as a shelf instead of a container.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't expertise a pure advantage when the problem has an unfamiliar structure?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to fixation when the same objects are presented unlabeled and disassembled?
Your turnmedium1 of 3
With the tacks inside the box, 6 of 39 participants solve the candle problem. With the same tacks laid beside an empty box, 23 of 39 solve it. By how many percentage points does presenting the box empty raise the solution rate?

6B. The Availability and Representativeness Heuristics

  1. How it worksHow does availability substitute ease of recall for actual frequency in a judgment?
  2. How it worksWalk me through representativeness judging a person by resemblance to a stereotype instead of by base rate.
  3. Worked exampleFind the error when Linda is rated more likely to be a feminist bank teller than a bank teller.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't a heuristic just a mistake the mind makes for no reason?
  5. Going furtherWhat happens to the bias when the base rate is made vivid and the description is made dull?
Your turneasy1 of 3
In a survey panel of 748 adults, 112 work as bank tellers, and 43 of those bank tellers are also active in the feminist movement. What percentage of the whole panel are feminist bank tellers?

6B. Anchoring, Framing and the Base-Rate Fallacy

  1. How it worksHow does an arbitrary anchor pull an estimate toward it even when the estimator knows it is arbitrary?
  2. Worked exampleShow me the same treatment chosen or rejected when it is framed as 200 saved versus 400 dead.
  3. Worked exampleFind the real probability of disease when a 5 percent false positive test fires on a 1 in 1000 condition.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't being told about the anchor enough to stop it from moving your answer?
Your turnhard1 of 3
A condition affects 1 person in 1545. A screening test catches every case and returns a positive result for 6 percent of people who do not have the condition. A randomly screened person tests positive. What is the probability, as a percentage, that this person has the condition?

6B. Overconfidence, Belief Perseverance and Confirmation Bias

  1. How it worksHow does confirmation bias steer a search toward evidence that can only support the current belief?
  2. How it worksWalk me through belief perseverance holding a conclusion steady after its evidence is retracted.
  3. Worked exampleShow me the Wason card task failing because people turn the card that could only confirm the rule.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't more information by itself a cure for overconfidence?
  5. Going furtherWhat happens to a belief when a person is asked to argue the opposite case first?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Across 96 general-knowledge questions a participant reports an average confidence of 91 percent and turns out to be correct on 74 percent of them. What is her overconfidence gap, in percentage points?

6B. Intuition and Dual-Process Thinking

  1. How it worksHow do a fast automatic system and a slow effortful system hand a problem back and forth?
  2. Common mistakeWhy isn't intuition simply sloppier reasoning that a careful person avoids?
  3. Going furtherWhat happens to accuracy when the question is printed in a hard-to-read font?
Your turnmedium1 of 3
A bat and a ball together cost 173 cents. The bat costs 93 cents more than the ball. How many cents does the ball cost?

6B. Theories of Intelligence

  1. How it worksHow does a general factor g emerge from every mental test correlating positively with every other?
  2. How it worksWalk me through Gardner's multiple intelligences and Sternberg's analytic, creative and practical split.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't a high g score evidence of skill in every cognitive domain?
  4. Going furtherWhat changes about the debate when emotional intelligence is measured as an ability test?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Two subtests in a mental-ability battery correlate at r = 0.648. What percentage of the variance in one subtest is shared with the other?

6B. Intelligence Testing and Variations in Intellectual Ability

  1. How it worksHow does standardization place a raw score on a normal curve with a mean of 100 and a spread of 15?
  2. Worked exampleFind the percentage of people scoring above 130 on a test with mean 100 and standard deviation 15.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't a reliable test automatically a valid one?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to measured scores across a century as the whole distribution shifts upward?
Your turneasy1 of 3
An intelligence test is standardised to a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. How many standard deviations above the mean does a score of 137 sit?

6B. Heredity and Environment in Intelligence

  1. How it worksHow does comparing identical, fraternal and adopted pairs separate shared genes from shared homes?
  2. Worked exampleShow me heritability estimated from a 0.86 identical twin correlation and a 0.60 fraternal one.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't a heritability of 0.5 a statement about any individual person's score?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to heritability estimates when the environments sampled are all nearly identical?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Identical twin pairs correlate at 0.854 on an ability test and fraternal twin pairs at 0.597. Falconer's formula estimates heritability as twice the difference between the two correlations. What heritability estimate does this give?

6B. States of Consciousness and Alertness

  1. How it worksHow do alertness, drowsiness, sleep and coma line up as different brain-activity states?
  2. How it worksWalk me through the reticular activating system keeping the cortex awake and alert.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't unconsciousness simply the brain being switched off?
  4. Going furtherWhat changes about awareness during an automatic behavior like driving a familiar route?
Your turneasy1 of 3
On an 10 hour monitoring shift an operator detects 92 percent of rare targets during the first hour and 69 percent during the last. What is the vigilance decrement, in percentage points?

6B. Stages of Sleep and Their EEG Signatures

  1. How it worksHow do alpha, theta and delta waves trade frequency for amplitude as sleep deepens?
  2. How it worksWalk me through sleep spindles and K complexes appearing in stage 2 and nowhere else.
  3. Worked exampleShow me which stage an EEG trace belongs to when it shows fast low-voltage waves with no muscle tone.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't REM sleep the deepest stage of sleep despite being the hardest to wake from?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A relaxed waking EEG shows an alpha rhythm at 11 Hz, while the deepest slow-wave sleep shows a delta rhythm at 2 Hz. How many times more cycles per second does the alpha rhythm carry?

6B. Sleep Cycles and Circadian Rhythms

  1. How it worksHow does a 90 minute cycle repeat across the night with REM getting longer and deep sleep shrinking?
  2. How it worksWalk me through light hitting the retina, driving the suprachiasmatic nucleus and timing melatonin release.
  3. Going furtherWhat happens to the rhythm when a person lives for weeks with no clock and no sunlight?
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't jet lag just tiredness from a long uncomfortable flight?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A sleeper sleeps 8 hours in cycles averaging 101 minutes, and REM occupies 25 percent of total sleep time across the night. How many minutes of REM does the night contain?

6B. Dreaming and Its Theories

  1. How it worksHow does activation-synthesis build a story out of random brainstem signals hitting the cortex?
  2. How it worksWalk me through wish fulfillment, information processing and physiological function as rival accounts.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't the content of a dream a reliable window into a hidden wish?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to learning and memory when REM sleep alone is selectively taken away?
Your turnmedium1 of 3
After 4 nights on which REM is selectively interrupted, a sleeper's REM share rises from 23 percent of total sleep time to 39 percent on the recovery night. In a recovery night of 8 hours, how many extra minutes of REM is that?

6B. Sleep-Wake Disorders

  1. How it worksHow do insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea and night terrors each distort a different part of the night?
  2. Worked exampleShow me a hypnogram from someone with sleep apnea and where every arousal interrupts it.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't a night terror the same thing as a nightmare?
  4. Going furtherWhat changes about the sleep architecture of somebody who works permanent night shifts?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A hypnogram records 315 breathing-related arousals across 8 hours of sleep. What is the apnea-hypopnea index, in events per hour?

6B. Hypnosis and Meditation

  1. How it worksHow do dissociation and social influence accounts explain the same hypnotic behavior differently?
  2. Common mistakeWhy isn't hypnosis a distinct brain state that shows up clearly on an EEG?
  3. Going furtherWhat happens to attention networks and cortical thickness in people who meditate for years?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Of 324 volunteers screened on a standard hypnotic susceptibility scale, 44 score in the highly susceptible range. What percentage of the sample is that?

6B. Consciousness-Altering Drugs

  1. How it worksHow do depressants, stimulants, opiates and hallucinogens each push neurotransmission a different way?
  2. How it worksWalk me through alcohol enhancing GABA while cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake at the synapse.
  3. Worked exampleShow me what happens to a neuron's firing rate under a barbiturate and then under an amphetamine.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't tolerance the same thing as physical dependence?
  5. Going furtherWhat happens on withdrawal when the body has already compensated for a drug that is now gone?
Your turnmedium1 of 3
A cortical neuron fires at 48 spikes per second at baseline. A barbiturate cuts that rate by 59 percent. An amphetamine given on top of it then raises the reduced rate by 192 percent of itself. What is the final firing rate, in spikes per second?

6B. Drug Addiction and the Reward Pathway

  1. How it worksHow does dopamine travelling from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens mark something as worth repeating?
  2. How it worksWalk me through receptor downregulation turning a pleasure spike into a flat baseline that needs the drug.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't addiction simply a failure of willpower in a person who enjoys the drug too much?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to the reward pathway when a cue alone, with no drug, appears after months of abstinence?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Baseline dopamine receptor availability in the nucleus accumbens is 108 units. Chronic use downregulates it by 43 percent. A dose then adds 29 units of signalling on top of the downregulated baseline. What signalling level does the user reach while dosed?

6B. Encoding

  1. How it worksHow do automatic and effortful processing route information into memory along different paths?
  2. How it worksWalk me through visual, acoustic and semantic encoding producing very different recall later.
  3. Worked exampleShow me recall for a word list studied by counting letters versus judging whether it fits a sentence.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't rereading a page the same as encoding what is on it?
  5. Going furtherWhat happens to a 10 digit string when it is chunked into three meaningful groups?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Of 54 words studied, participants recall 10 after a task that asked them to count the letters in each word, and 31 after a task that asked whether each word fits into a sentence. How many more words does the sentence task yield?

6B. Sensory, Working and Long-Term Memory

  1. How it worksHow do iconic and echoic stores hold a full copy for under a second before it fades?
  2. How it worksWalk me through the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and central executive in working memory.
  3. Worked exampleFind how many items a person holds when seven digits are recalled but only four unrelated words are.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't long-term memory a warehouse with a fixed number of shelves that can fill up?
  5. Going furtherWhat happens to working memory capacity when a second task loads the same subsystem?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A participant reliably repeats back 8 digits in order but manages only 4 unrelated words. How many more items does her digit span hold than her word span?

6B. Explicit and Implicit Memory

  1. How it worksHow do the hippocampus and the cerebellum store two completely different kinds of memory?
  2. How it worksWalk me through episodic, semantic, procedural and priming as separate long-term systems.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't amnesia a uniform loss of everything a person once knew?
  4. Going furtherWhat changes for a patient whose hippocampus is removed but whose basal ganglia are untouched?
Your turneasy1 of 3
An amnesic patient's mirror-tracing errors fall from 44 per trial to 11 per trial across 7 daily sessions, while he denies each morning having ever seen the task. By what percentage have his errors fallen?

6B. Semantic Networks and Spreading Activation

  1. How it worksHow does activating one node in a semantic network spill activation down its connected links?
  2. Worked exampleShow me priming measured as reaction time when bread is preceded by butter versus by nurse.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't a semantic network a filing cabinet where each concept sits in exactly one folder?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to spreading activation when a node has dozens of links instead of two?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A lexical decision on the word BUTTER takes 717 ms when it follows the unrelated prime NURSE and 572 ms when it follows the related prime BREAD. What is the priming effect, in milliseconds?

6B. Recall, Recognition and Relearning

  1. How it worksHow do recall, recognition and relearning each measure a different depth of the same stored trace?
  2. Worked exampleShow me savings measured when a list relearned in 5 trials originally took 20 trials.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't a failed recall proof that the memory is gone?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to a memory that is retrieved and then put back, over many retrievals?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A list originally learned to criterion in 26 trials is relearned to the same criterion 5 years later in 8 trials. What is the savings score, as a percentage?

6B. Retrieval Cues, Context and State Dependence

  1. How it worksHow does a cue present at encoding reopen the path back to the trace that was stored with it?
  2. How it worksWalk me through context-dependent, state-dependent and mood-congruent retrieval as three versions of one idea.
  3. Worked exampleShow me divers recalling a word list underwater after learning it underwater and then on dry land.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't the tip-of-the-tongue state evidence that the memory was never encoded?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Divers who learned a 37 word list underwater recall 16 words when tested underwater and 11 words when tested on dry land. By what percentage does the matching context raise recall over the mismatched one?

6B. The Serial-Position Effect

  1. How it worksHow do primacy from extra rehearsal and recency from a still-warm short-term store make one U-shaped curve?
  2. Worked exampleShow me the recall curve for a 15 word list plotted item by item from first to last.
  3. Going furtherWhat happens to the recency half of the curve when 30 seconds of counting comes before recall?
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't the primacy effect erased by the same delay that wipes out recency?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A list of 18 words is read aloud at a rate of one word every 4 seconds. How many seconds elapse between the presentation of the first word and the presentation of the last?

6B. Decay and the Forgetting Curve

  1. How it worksHow does Ebbinghaus's retention curve drop steeply at first and then flatten into a long tail?
  2. Worked exampleShow me the curve reset upward each time a spaced review lands on a nearly forgotten item.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't forgetting simply a memory trace physically rotting away over time?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to the curve when material is learned in one block versus spread across a week?
Your turnmedium1 of 3
A learner's retention follows R = 95·exp(-t/7) percent, with t measured in days since study. What percentage is retained after 13 days?

6B. Proactive and Retroactive Interference

  1. How it worksHow do two memories competing for one retrieval cue block each other in opposite directions?
  2. Worked exampleShow me which interference is at work when new Spanish blocks the French you learned first.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't interference the same thing as the old memory being erased by the new one?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to interference when the two memories are given clearly separate contexts?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A control group recalls 20 of 30 items from a second list. A group that learned a similar first list beforehand recalls 11 of the same items. What percentage of the control group's recall does the experimental group retain?

6B. Memory Construction and the Misinformation Effect

  1. How it worksHow does each retrieval rebuild a memory and then store the rebuilt version back over the original?
  2. Worked exampleShow me speed estimates rising when a question asks how fast the cars smashed instead of hit.
  3. How it worksWalk me through source monitoring failing so a suggestion gets remembered as a firsthand experience.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't a vivid detailed memory more likely to be accurate than a hazy one?
  5. Going furtherWhat happens to a childhood memory when a relative confidently describes an event that never occurred?
Your turneasy1 of 3
Participants asked how fast the cars were going when they SMASHED into each other give a mean estimate of 42 mph, while those asked how fast they were going when they HIT each other give 33 mph. What is the difference, in mph?

6B. Aging, Alzheimer's Disease and Korsakoff's Syndrome

  1. How it worksHow do amyloid plaques and tau tangles spread from the hippocampus outward through the cortex?
  2. How it worksWalk me through anterograde and retrograde amnesia hitting opposite sides of one point on a timeline.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't confabulation in Korsakoff's syndrome the same thing as lying?
  4. Going furtherWhat changes about memory in normal aging that does not happen in Alzheimer's disease?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A patient scores 27 on a 30 point cognitive screen and declines by 3 points per year as pathology spreads outward from the medial temporal lobe. What score would be expected 5 years later?

6B. Neural Plasticity and Long-Term Potentiation

  1. How it worksHow does repeated firing across one synapse make that synapse permanently easier to fire again?
  2. How it worksWalk me through NMDA receptors, calcium entry and new AMPA receptors strengthening a connection.
  3. Worked exampleShow me a synapse's response before and after a burst of high-frequency stimulation.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't long-term potentiation the growth of brand new neurons?
  5. Ties togetherHow does long-term potentiation connect to the forgetting curve flattening after a spaced review?
Your turnmedium1 of 3
A hippocampal synapse produces an excitatory postsynaptic potential of 2 mV before a burst of high-frequency stimulation and 4 mV one hour afterwards. By what percentage has the response been potentiated?

6B. Theories of Language Development

  1. How it worksHow do learning, nativist and interactionist accounts explain the same milestone with different machinery?
  2. How it worksWalk me through cooing, babbling, one-word, telegraphic speech and full grammar on a timeline.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't imitation and reinforcement enough to explain a child producing sentences never heard before?
  4. Going furtherWhat happens to language acquisition when the first exposure comes after the critical period?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A toddler produces 68 words at 18 months and 347 words at 24 months. What is her average rate of new words per month across that six-month period?

6B. Language and Cognition: the Whorfian Hypothesis

  1. How it worksHow does linguistic relativity claim that categories in a language carve up a continuous world?
  2. Worked exampleShow me color discrimination tested across two languages that place the boundary in different places.
  3. Common mistakeWhy isn't strong linguistic determinism supported by people who think about things they cannot name?
  4. Going furtherWhat changes about spatial reasoning for speakers who describe locations only by compass direction?
Your turnmedium1 of 3
Speakers of a language that places a colour-term boundary between two chips discriminate them in 536 ms, while speakers of a language covering both chips with a single term take 678 ms. By what percentage are the second group slower?

6B. Broca's and Wernicke's Areas

  1. How it worksHow do Broca's area for production and Wernicke's area for comprehension divide language between them?
  2. How it worksWalk me through the arcuate fasciculus carrying a heard word to the region that will speak it.
  3. Worked exampleShow me which area is damaged when a patient speaks fluently but cannot repeat a phrase back.
  4. Common mistakeWhy isn't language housed in one single region the way a simple model suggests?
  5. Going furtherWhat happens to language after left-hemisphere damage in a young child versus in an adult?
Your turneasy1 of 3
A patient with nonfluent aphasia produces 16 words per minute in conversation, against a normal conversational rate of 142 words per minute. What percentage of the normal rate is that?

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